Menstrual Symptoms in Adolescent Girls: Association with Smoking, Depressive Symptoms, and Anxiety
Received 4 February 2008; accepted 31 July 2008. published online 29 October 2008.
Abstract
Purpose
Dysmenorrhea affects quality of life and contributes to absenteeism from school and work, thereby diminishing opportunities for successful psychosocial and cognitive development during adolescence. In adults, depression, anxiety, and smoking have an impact on menstrual cycles and dysmenorrhea. Associations between these problems have not been examined in adolescents. The purpose of this study was to examine relations between depressive symptoms and anxiety with menstrual symptoms. Smoking was examined as a moderator of this association.
Methods
This study enrolled 154 postmenarcheal girls from a sample of 207 girls age 11, 13, 15, and 17 years (mean = 15.4 years [±1.9]). Self-reported measures included the Menstrual Symptom Questionnaire (MSQ), Children's Depression Inventory, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and smoking behavior. Generalized linear regression modeled MSQ outcomes separately for depressive symptoms and anxiety.
Results
More depressive symptoms/anxiety were related to higher numbers of menstrual symptoms (r = 0.23–0.44, p < .05). Smoking status (ever) was related to higher MSQ scores. Moderating effects of smoking and depressive symptoms or anxiety on menstrual symptoms were consistent across most MSQ factors where effects were stronger in never smokers.
Conclusion
This is the first study in adolescents showing smoking status and depressive symptoms/anxiety are related to menstrual symptoms, and that the impact of depressive symptoms/anxiety on menstrual symptoms is stronger in never smokers. The dynamic and complex nature of smoking, moods, and dysmenorrhea cannot be disentangled without longitudinal analyses. Efforts to reduce menstrual symptoms should begin at a young gynecological age and include consideration of mood and smoking status.
aDivision of Adolescent Medicine, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
bUniversity of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio
cCenter for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
dThe Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania
Address correspondence to: Lorah D. Dorn, Ph.D., Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, 3333 Burnet Avenue, MLC 4000, Cincinnati, OH 45229.
Financial support was from a grant received by the first author (R01DA16402). The study was also supported by USPHS GCRC Grant #M01 RR 08084 from the National Center for Research Resources, NIH. No other support was received by any of the authors.
ABSTRACT